Administration of Tipu

Tipu Sultan ( November 1750  – 4 May 1799), also known as the Tiger of Mysore and Tipu Sahib, was a ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore and a scholar, soldier, and poet. Tipu was the eldest son of Sultan Hyder Ali of Mysore and his wife Fatima Fakhr-un-Nisa. Tipu introduced a number of administrative innovations during his rule, including his coinage, a new Mauludi lunisolar calendar, and a new land revenue system which initiated the growth of Mysore silk industry. Tipu expanded the iron-cased Mysorean rockets and wrote the military manual Fathul Mujahidin, considered a pioneer in the use of rocket artillery. He deployed the rockets against advances of British forces and their allies in their 1792 and1799 Siege of Srirangapatna.

The nature of the government of Tipu was despotism.Sultan was the embodiment of all civil, political and military authority in this state.He was his own foreign minister, its own commander in chief and highest court of appeal.He look great care in the welfare and happiness of the people.

In Central Government administration he introduced western system of administration in mysore.Each department was  put under  the charge of a chief assisted by a number of subordinate officers. There were 7 department of administration.Each under a mir-asif, directly responsible to the sultan. The provinces divided into districts and villages. the traditional village panchayat handled local affairs. In the revenue system he continued from Hyder and added it efficiency to it.he discouraged jagirdhary system and tied to establish relation with cultivators and govt.

He promoted both foreign and inland trade.he tried to establish commercial relation with china.Number of factories set up in mysore and manufacture variety of articles ranging from war ammunitions, paper, sugar, silk fabrics and fancy items.In 1786 Tipu Sultan, again following the lead of his father, decided to build a navy consisting of 20 battleships of 72 cannons and 20 frigates of 62 cannons. In the year 1790 he appointed Kamaluddin as his Mir Bahar and established massive dockyards at Jamalabad and Majidabad. Tipu Sultan's board of admiralty consisted of 11 commanders in service of a Mir Yam. A Mir Yam led 30 admirals and each one of them had two ships. By the year 1789 most of Tipu Sultan's ships had copper-bottoms, an idea that increased the longevity of the ships and was introduced to Tipu by Admiral Suffren.

Jacobin club was illeducated and unhopeless peoples. In many cases they were currupt but practical politicians.

ADMINISTRATION OF HARSHA VARDHANA

       The administration of Harsha Vardhana is related with the striking personality of Harsha. Harsha's interest in supervision of administration is one plus point. Harshavardhana followed the traditional monarchical system of administra­tion in India  during the earlier imperial periods. His policy having been nearer to the Gupta Age, the various features of the imperial Gupta administration influenced Harshavardhana’s administration to a very large extent. He conducted  his own style of administration and Harshavardhana too went by his own individuality in governing the empire. We can get the information from HIUEN TSANG's account. Hiuen-tsang writes that "If there was any irregularity in the manners of the people in the cities, he went amidst them." Inscriptions reveal that Harsha had stayed in two places during his travels. Harsha traveled in great state and his camps looked very impressive because he was surrounded by a number of guests. Hieum-Tsang writes: "The king's day was divided into three periods of which one was given to the affairs of government, and two were devoted to religious work. He was indefatigable, and the day was too short for him." The way in which Harsha worked was recorded by Bana also.Harshavardhana was a true representative of ancient monarchy in its finest aspects. In theory, the king was absolute and all powerful. But in practice, he enjoyed limited power, being subject to the rules of the Dharma, the laws and customs of the land, and to the wise advice of the ministers and courtiers. He had also to respect the wishes of the subjects. The King was no doubt the supreme lawmaker, the chief executive, and the fountain of justice. He was also the central figure of the entire administrative machinery working like its pivot. In spite of all such powers, Harshavardhana’s monarchy was far from being autocratic. It maintained moderation and rested on popular support. One need not forget that Harshavardhana came to the thrones of Thaneswara and Kanauj in response to the collective decisions of the Councils of Ministers and of the notables of the two kingdoms.Besides the Chief Minister, other ministers also shouldered impor­tant responsibilities. It is known from Bana that a minister named Avanti was the Minister for Foreign Relations and War under Harshavardhana. The king interfeared in every matter of an imperial government, the ministers discharged their part of duty in helping the king.

The empire was divided into various provinces. The emperor appointed provincial governors known as Lokapalas who were posted at chosen centers in different quarters. The provinces were known as Bhuktia, districats as Vishayas, sub-divisions of districts as Patakas and Villages as gramas.

Next authority of the sovereign was the chief minister and the mantriparishad. According to Bhandi, a cousin of Rajayavardhana, Harsha's accession to throne was approved by the parishad. This account is corroborated by the Chinese pilgrim. Avanti was the supreme minister of war and peace, according to Bana. For maintaining law and order, a great number of military and executive officers were employed. At times, some of the high officers were combined in one and the same persons. A few other names also are known: Simhanada was Harsha's senapati. Harsha treated him with great respect as he was a scholarly man. Also, we hear of a handful of officials who themselves were chiefs indicating that in all probability Harsha's sovereignty was of a confederate nature. According to Hiuen-Tsang, both ministers and officials received land grants instead of salaries. One-fourth of eth crown land was set apart for the endowment of great public servants and another one-fourth for the expenses of government and State worship.

The army was organized into four traditional divisions. Probably 70,000 elephants and 105,000 horses. However, some of the regions were not free from brigands as is known from the experience of Hiuen-Tsang who was way laid. Harshavardhana maintained an efficient civil service. The importance of some of the higher officers of the state is known from their designations. The chief officers used to directly receive instructions from the King.  Besides these, there were the Commander-in-Chief, the Chief of the Cavalry Forces, and the Chief Commandant of the Elephant Force.In Harshavardhana’s Empire, the king’s share was one-sixth of the agricultural produce. Revenue was also earned from trade and commerce. 

Lawlessness was not the order of the day but there were plots against kings including one against Harsha. The offender was punished by imprisonment for life.Trial by or deal was common. Justice was harsh, but as the Chinese pilgrim maintains, the government was very generous and did not make any large demands either on the liberties or pockets of the people.

In general, the country was not entirely free from brigands who made traveling very risky. Hiuen-Tsand himself twice had narrow escapes from the clutches of bandits, Villagers haunted by the fear plunder often questioned the right of the King to rule according to Bana. However, as Hiuen-Tsand states that since the government was honestly administered, the people lived on good terms and the criminal class was very small.

Regarding administration of provinces and villages very meager information is available. The territory of the empire was called rajya or desa, which was divided into bhuktis, visayas and gramas. The governor of the provinces was, at times, a member of the royal family. The governor appointed his subordinate officials. Probably, the officials mentioned in the Gupta period continued to work in the time of Harsha. Besides the officials of states non-official element was also associated with the local administration. The Madhuban plate of Harsha (grant of an agrahara to some persons) states that the grant was made in the presence of all his chief officers and the resident people who were summoned as witnesses to this transaction. Such orders of the king were, at times, signed by Harsha himself. The Banskhera plate was signed by Harsha and described as one given under his own hand and seal. Often the king's orders were delivered through messangers to local officers, who in turn, grew up necessary charters and handed over the grant to the grantees.

Finally, regarding fiscal administration we get some information from inscriptions. In all probability, land was surveyed measured and divided into holdings with well-defined boundaries. The holdings were of different sizes. At times these were served by common land which in certain cases, had irrigation wells. The names of owners of land were entered in the village records. It appears that record of village census was also kept. It is certain that land revenue was only a modest percentage of total yield. Taxation was light-revenue from crown lands amounted to only one -sixth of the crop, according to traditional standard. The other sources of revenue were trade, and duties at ferries and barrier stations.

The enlightened character of Harsha's administration is shown by the creation of a department of records and archieves. Both good and bad were faithfully recorded in officials annals and state papers while instance of public calamities of good furtuns are set forth indetails. Taxation was light. The land tax was one-sixth of the crop. According to tradition, standard revenue was also derived from trade. Ligth, duties were levied on ferries and barriar stations.

In this manner, we have a very least knowledge of Harsha's administration. The administration was not well integrated as Harsha domain itself was so shaky. However, the fat that the king devoted himself to the welfare of the people by traveling in the country and the generosity with which he gave grants, shows that he was one of the illustrious rulers of India the manner of Asoka and Shivaji.

STUDY ON EDUCATIONAL ASPIRATION AND ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION IN RELATION TO THE HOME ENVIRONMENT OF TRIBAL SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS OF IDUKKI DISTRICT.

 Heredity and environment plays a vital role in determining the personality of a child. The term "aspirations" is one which is often used synonymously with goals, ambitions, objectives, purposes, dreams, plans, designs, intentions, desires, longings, wishes, yearnings, cravings or aims. Educational Aspirations refer to the early impressions of one's own academic abilities and the highest level of education an individual expects to attain has also been linked to academic achievement. Aspiration change throughout childhood and shaped by the characteristics of young people and their families, peers, and neighbourhood. It varies for different sections of the population both in terms of parents educational and occupational goals for their children and the ambitions of the pupils themselves. Parental educational attainment and income both exert significant influence on educational aspirations. So the home environment is one of the major influencing factor determine the educational aspiration.

Achievement motivation is expectancy of findings satisfaction in mastery of difficulty and challenging performances. Where us in the field of education it stands for the pursuit of excellence. It is a goal set by the pupils with the influence of home environment and other related factors. This study attempted to find out whether the differences in academic achievement motivation among pupils can be attributed to differences in their home environments.

So home is the most important influencing factor of students. It is an agency which is responsible for imparting early education and lying down the basics of further education. In this study it was assumed that children’s home environments could be a possible determinant of their variations in academic achievement motivation. The value that different families attach to education could affect the child’s attitude to school and eventually affect his motivation for success in school work. Many homes differ on factors such as family size, availability of learning materials, the parent’s level of education, parents’ occupation, income, parental encouragement and involvement.  Motivation is the basic drive for all of our actions and it refers to the dynamics of our behaviour, which involves our needs, desires and ambitions in life. It is based on reaching success and achieving all of our aspirations in life. Both are set in the childhood but aspiration change with the entire time of students with influencing his or her environmental factors.

Major Objectives of the Study

1.      To find out the difference between male and female tribal secondary school students of Idukki district in their educational aspiration, achievement motivation and home environment.

2.      To find out the difference in educational aspiration, achievement motivation and home environment among various tribes of tribal secondary school students  of Idukki district.

3.      To find out the association between educational aspiration, achievement motivation and home environment of tribal secondary school students of Idukki district and their mothers’ educational qualification.

4.      To find out the association between educational aspiration, achievement motivation and home environment of tribal secondary school students of Idukki district and their fathers’ educational qualification.

5.      To find out whether there is any significant correlation between educational aspiration and achievement motivation of tribal secondary school students.

6.      To find out whether there is any significant correlation between educational aspiration and home environment of tribal secondary school students of Idukki district.

7.    To find out whether there is any significant correlation between achievement motivation and home environment of tribal secondary school students of  Idukki district.

   Hypotheses of the Study

1.      There is significant difference between male and female tribal secondary school students of Idukki district in their educational aspiration.

2.      There is significant difference between male and female tribal secondary school students of Idukki district in their achievement motivation.

3.      There is significant difference between male and female tribal secondary school students of Idukki district in their home environment.

4.      There is significant difference in educational aspiration among various tribes of tribal secondary school students of Idukki district.

5.      There is significant difference in achievement motivation among various tribes of tribal secondary school students of Idukki district.

6.      There is significant difference in home environment among various tribes of tribal secondary school students of Idukki district.

7.      There is significant association between educational aspiration of tribal secondary school students of Idukki district and their mothers’ educational qualification.

8.      There is significant association between achievement motivation of tribal secondary school students of Idukki district and their mothers’ educational qualification.

9.      There is significant association between home environment of tribal secondary school students of Idukki district and their mothers’ educational qualification.

10     There is significant association between educational aspiration of tribal secondary school students of Idukki district and their fathers’ educational qualification.

11.    There is significant association between achievement motivation home environment of tribal secondary school students of Idukki district and their fathers’ educational qualification.

12.    There is significant association between home environment of tribal secondary school students of Idukki district and their fathers’ educational qualification.

13.    There is significant correlation between educational aspiration and achievement motivation of tribal secondary school students of Idukki district.

14.    There is significant correlation between educational aspiration and home environment of tribal secondary school students of Idukki district.

15.    There is significant correlation between achievement motivation and home environment of tribal secondary school students of Idukki district.

          

 Methodology

   The present study is normative survey titled “study on educational aspiration and achievement motivation in relation to the home environment of tribal secondary school students of Idukki district”. The sample for the study consists of 200 tribal secondary school students from five tribal secondary schools in Idukki district.

 Tools Used for the Study

1.          Educational aspiration inventory prepared and standardised by Dr. T. Pradeep Kumar.

2.          Achievement motivation scale prepared and standardised by the investigator.

3.         Home environment inventory prepared and standardised by the investigator.

Major Findings of the Study

1. There is significant difference between male and female tribal secondary school students of Idukki district in their educational aspiration

2. `There is significant difference between male and female tribal secondary school students of Idukki district in their achievement motivation.

3. There is significant difference between male and female tribal secondary school students of Idukki district in their home environment.

4. There is no significant difference in educational aspiration among various tribes of tribal secondary school students of Idukki district.

5. There is no significant difference in achievement motivation among various tribes of tribal secondary school students of Idukki district.

6. There is no significant difference in home environment among various tribes of tribal secondary school students of Idukki district.

7. There is no significant association between educational aspiration of tribal secondary school students of Idukki district and their mothers’ educational qualification.

8.  There is significant association between achievement motivation of tribal secondary school students of Idukki district and their mothers’ educational qualification.

9. There is significant association between home environment of tribal secondary school students of Idukki district and their mothers’ educational qualification.

10. There is significant association between educational aspiration of tribal secondary school students of Idukki district and their fathers’ educational qualification.

11. There is no significant association between achievement motivation of tribal secondary school students of Idukki district and their fathers’ educational qualification.

12. There is significant association between home environment of tribal secondary school students of Idukki district and their fathers’ educational qualification.

13. There is significant correlation between educational aspiration and achievement motivation of tribal secondary school students of Idukki district.

14. There is significant correlation between educational aspiration and home environment of tribal secondary school students of Idukki district.

15. There is significant correlation between achievement motivation and home environment of tribal secondary school students of Idukki district.

CONCLUSION

The findings of the study can be much useful in educational planning and could also be helpful for education and curriculum frames to modify the method of teaching for the tribal students. And also it indicates the importance of developing the educational aspirations during school age.

SETHUSAMUDRAM SHIPPING CANAL PROJECT

   It is a proposed project that would link Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar between Tamilnadu, India and Sri Lanka by creating a shipping channel through the shallow sea called Sethusamudram and through a chain of islands collectively called Adam's Bridge, Ramar Palam, Ram Sethu and similar names. This would provide a continuously navigable sea route in and around thea Indian Peninsula.

         The project involves digging a 44.9 nautical miles (51.7 mi; 83.2 km) long deepwater channel linking the shallow Palk Strait with the Gulf of Mannar. Conceived as early as 1860 by Alfred Dundas Taylor, it recently received approval of the Indian government, which plans to break the limestone shoals of Rama's Bridge as part of this project.

         A few organisations are opposing damage to Adam's Bridge on religious, environmental and economical grounds. Many support the implementation of this project using one of five alternative alignments considered earlier without damaging the structure, which is sacred to Hindus. The alignment is currently planned to be roughly in the middle of the straits to provide the shortest course and the course requiring least maintenance.

History

        Because of its shallow waters, Sethusamudram—the sea separating Sri Lanka from India—presents a hindrance to navigation through the Palk Strait. Though trade across the India-Sri Lanka divide has been active since at least the first millennium BCE, it has been limited to small boats and dinghies. Larger ocean going vessels from the West have had to navigate around Sri Lanka to reach India' eastern coast. Eminent British geographer Major James Rennell surveyed the region in late 18th century; he suggested that a "navigable passage could be maintained by dredging the of Ramisseram . Little notice was given to his proposal, perhaps because it came from "so young and an unknown officer", and the idea was only revived 60 years later. Efforts were made in 1838 to dredge the canal, but the passage did not remain navigable for any vessels except those with a shallow draft.

         The project was possibly conceived in 1860 by Commander A. D. Taylor of the Indian Marines, and has been reviewed many times without a decision being made. It has been part of the election manifestos of all political parties during elections. The Government of India appointed the Sethu Samudram Project Committee in 1955—headed by Dr. A. Ramasamy Mudaliar—which was charged with examining the desirability of the project. After evaluating the costs and benefits, this committee found the project feasible and viable. However it strongly recommended an overland passage instead of a channel cutting through Rama's Bridge. A land passage would have several advantages, such as avoiding shifting sandbanks and navigational hazards. Several reviews of the proposals followed until the United Progressive Alliance Government of India headed by Prime Minister Manmohan Singh announced the inauguration of the project on 2 July 2005.

            In 2008, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh appointed Rajendra K. Pachauri as the head . In 2013, the committee released its report calling the project "unviable both from the economic as well as ecological angles". The Indian government rejected the committee's report and decided to go ahead with the project in its current form.

Environmental impact

          The project would disturb the ecological balance and destroy corals. The area is an important fishing ground for Tamil Nadu and the Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park is in the vicinity of the proposed project. Opposition to the canal's planned route has come from local fishermen who are demanding alternative channels, which are available. They say the planned route would destroy marine life and corals and would impact the trade in conch shells that is worth almost 1.5 billion  a year. Deposits of thorium—would be affected, which are too important for our nuclear fuel requirements. Opponents also say that the dumping of dredged material from the Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar in deeper waters would "endanger those areas, which are rich reserves containing 400 endangered species, including whales, sea turtles, dugongs and dolphins".

            Tsunami expert Professor Tad Murty—who advised the Government of India on the tsunami warning system—has said that the planned route may result in increased impact from tsunami waves. He wrote, "During the Indian Ocean tsunami of 26 December 2004, the southern part of Kerala was generally spared from a major tsunami, mainly because the tsunami waves from Sumatra region travelling south of the Sri Lankan island, partially diffracted northward and affected the central part of the Kerala coast. Since the tsunami is a long gravity wave (similar to tides and storm surges) during the diffraction process, the rather wide turn it has to take spared the south Kerala coast. On the other hand, deepening the Sethu Canal might provide a more direct route for the tsunami and this could impact south Kerala." 

        On 21 April 2010, the Supreme Court of India decided to delay the project to until an Environmental impact analysis on the feasibility of a route through Dhanuskodi instead of Rama's Bridge had been carried out.

Religion

          Opposition to the project also came from Hindus, who see the Rama Sethu or Rama’s Bridge as the remains of a bridge created by Lord Rama.

        With the NDA government choosing not to demolish the Ram Sethu, the mythical bridge believed to have been built by Lord Rama across the sea to go to Sri Lanka, the Sethusamudram Shipping Channel project (SSCP) could take an alternative route through the Pamban Sea.

         An official, who accompanied Union Shipping Minister Nitin Gadkari during his aerial inspection of the SSCP area, said the Pamban route could be easy and cheap"We have thoroughly studied this new route via Pamban Bridge and it is viable. Earlier, nine proposals were made between 1860 and 1922. With the technical advancement, the Pamban route will be easy and cheap," the official told PTI.The SSCP project envisages dredging a ship channel across Palk Straits, providing a shorter navigational route for ships from east and west coasts of the country instead of circumventing Sri Lanka, has hit a block after protests over the proposed demolition of Ram Sethu.